Protein O-sulfonation

ABSTRACT

Post-translational O-sulfonation of a serine or threonine residue of proteins is detected, optionally comparatively, wherein the detected O-sulfonation is detected under a first physiological condition, and is compared with a control O-sulfonation detected under a second physiological condition, and a difference between the detected and control O-sulfonations indicates a difference between the first and second physiological conditions. Predetermined changes in physiological conditions are used to infer specific changes in O-sulfonation. Proteins are modified by introducing a predetermined change in O-sulfonation at a serine or threonine residue of the protein, and optionally, detecting a resultant change in O-sulfonation. These methods include introducing or increasing O-sulfonation, eliminating or reducing O-sulfonation; and derivatizing or substituting O-sulfonation.

This work was supported by NIH NCRR Grant, RR 01614. The U.S. governmentmay have rights in any patent issuing on this application.

INTRODUCTION

1. Field of the Invention

The field of the invention is detecting and modulating O-sulfonation ofserine and threonine residues on polypeptides.

2. Background of the Invention

Sulfonation occurs as a common enzymatic modification of endogenoussubstances including proteins, carbohydrates, catecholamines, andestrogenic steroids as well as xenobiotic chemicals [1]. Sulfonationrefers to the transfer of the sulfonate group (SO₃ ⁻¹) from3′-phosphoadenosine-5′-phosphosulfate (PAPS), the only known sulfonatedonor [2]. Sulfonation can occur through several types of linkages,esters (O-sulfonation), amides (N-sulfonation) and thioesters(S-sulfonation) [3], of which O-sulfonation is the most prominent. Thetransfer of SO₃ ⁻¹ to a hydroxyl acceptor (O-sulfonation) generates anester sulfate, and this reaction has commonly been referred to assulfation rather than the more accurate O-sulfonation.

The majority of cellular sulfonation is O-sulfonation and occursprimarily on steroids, catecholamines and thyroid hormones [1]. Thesulfonation of these molecules is catalyzed by the soluble cytosolicsulfotransferases and appears to alter their bioactivity. For example,estrogen, testosterone and thyroid hormones (T₃ and T₄) can interactwith their respective receptors to regulate transcription whereas theirsulfate-containing moieties cannot. Furthermore, the half-life of thesecompounds in blood is significantly shorter than that of theirconjugated counterparts suggesting that sulfonation maintains thesecompounds in an inactive state ready for rapid deployment by the removalof the sulfonyl group.

While the cytosolic sulfotransferases conjugate cell-permeable orintracellular compounds, the membrane-bound Golgi-associatedsulfotransferases are primarily responsible for sulfonation ofextracellular proteins via a co- or post-translational mechanism. Themembrane-bound sulfotransferases are responsible for the sulfonation ofvarious glycosaminoglycans such as heparin and heparan sulfate.Additionally, such enzymes catalyze the direct sulfonation of proteinson the 4-O-position of tyrosine residues [4]. It is one of the lastmodifications to occur during protein transiting the trans-Golgi andthus has been found almost exclusively on secreted and plasma membraneproteins of all metazoan species examined. In addition, there is a largebody of evidence that this modification is present usually at theinterface of interacting proteins and hence, is known to modulateextracellular protein-protein interactions. In humans, protein tyrosinesulfonation has been implicated in proteins of the vasculature andhemostasis. Examples include the mediation of inflammatory leukocyteadhesion, chemokine receptors and modulation of the blood coagulationcascade [5]. Significantly, only tyrosine residues have been describedas sites for O-sulfonation within proteins, and O-sulfonation ofproteins has not previously been shown to occur within the cytosol.Several tyrosyl protein sulfotransferases [6,7] and arylsulfatases [8]present in the trans-Golgi have been described, but unlike tyrosinephosphorylation/dephosphorylation [9], there is no evidence of dynamicregulation of tyrosine sulfonation [4,5]. Until now, only widespreadmodification of tyrosine has been observed [10,11].

We have discovered the occurrence of sulfonation as a posttranslationalmodification of serine and threonine residues, and that this sulfonationis involved in the modulation of protein-protein interactions, and inparticular, has regulatory functions in receptor tyrosine kinasesignaling as discussed further below. We have exploited this finding todevelop methods of detecting and modulating this serine and threoninesulfonation.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides methods and compositions for detecting and/ormodulating O-sulfonation of serine or threonine residues on cell-madepolypeptides. In one embodiment, the invention provides a method ofdetecting a post-translational protein modification, comprising the stepof: specifically detecting O-sulfonation of a serine or threonineresidue of the protein. This method may be practiced comparatively,wherein the detected O-sulfonation is detected under a firstphysiological condition, and is compared with a control O-sulfonationdetected under a second physiological condition, particularly wherein adifference between the detected and control O-sulfonations indicates adifference between the first and second physiological conditions. Thedetected and control O-sulfonations may be detected directly, indirectly(e.g. by specifically detecting a biochemical marker predetermined to bespecifically correlated with the change in O-sulfonation) orinferentially (e.g. by specifically detecting a physiological changepredetermined to be specifically correlated with the change inO-sulfonation).

Also disclosed are diagnostic reagents specific for O-sulfonatedproteins, particularly antibodies which specifically bind incorporatedO-sulfonated serine or threonine residues. Accordingly, the inventionprovides an isolated antibody which specifically binds an O-sulfonatedprotein, wherein the specific binding is dependent on the presence of anO-sulfonated serine or threonine residue in the protein.

In another embodiment, specific, predetermined changes in physiologicalconditions (including biochemical signaling) are used to infer specificchanges in O-sulfonation. For example, this embodiment includes a methodof detecting a change in O-sulfonation of a serine or threonine residueof a protein, comprising the step of specifically detecting aphysiological change predetermined to be correlated with the change inO-sulfonation.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method of detecting aserine or threonine protein sulfotransferase or sulfatase activity,comprising the step of: specifically detecting a change in O-sulfonationof a serine or threonine residue of a protein, wherein the change inO-sulfonation indicates the sulfotransferase or sulfatase activity.

In another embodiment, the invention provides methods of modifyingproteins by introducing a predetermined change in O-sulfonation at aserine or threonine residue of the protein, and optionally, detecting aresultant change in O-sulfonation, for example, by specificallydetecting a physiological change predetermined to be correlated with thechange in O-sulfonation. These methods include introducing or increasingO-sulfonation at the serine or threonine of the protein; eliminating orreducing O-sulfonation at the serine or threonine of the protein; andderivatizing or substituting O-sulfonation at the serine or threonine ofthe protein.

In another embodiment, the invention provides kits comprising a reagentfor use in a subject method, and optionally, an instructional mediumdescribing a subject method. The invention also provides businessmethods specifically adapted to, and/or incorporating a description of,or reference to a subject method or kit.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PARTICULAR EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

The following descriptions of particular embodiments and examples areoffered by way of illustration and not by way of limitation. Unlesscontraindicated or noted otherwise, in these descriptions and throughoutthis specification, the terms “a” and “an” mean one or more, the term“or” means and/or.

Protein sulfonation on serine and threonine residues is a naturalpost-translational modification of numerous and diverse proteins,particularly in eukaryotic organisms. Serine and threonine sulfonationis used to regulate a broad and diverse array of protein functions,including assembly and signal transduction. This invention providesmethods and compositions for detecting and/or modulating natural andartificial O-sulfonation of serine or threonine residues on proteins.The methods are applicable to an enormous diversity of natural andnon-natural proteins, including intracellular, membrane-bound, andextracellular proteins, wherein the term protein generically encompassesbiomolecules comprising a peptide-bond linked amino acid polymer (i.e.peptide or polypeptide) made by a cell, and includes such polymerssubject to post-translation modifications, including glycosylation, andjoined to other biomolecules (e.g. to form proteo-lipids), orincorporated into larger macromolecules. Preferred target proteins arehuman proteins, particularly human blood proteins.

Described below are diverse exemplary methods of using and commerciallyexploiting O-sulfonation of the serine or threonine residue of theprotein. Of course, the invention includes existent methods and usesrelating to tyrosine sulfonation and phosphorylation and glycosylationof serine and threonine residues, as adapted to sulfonated serine andthreonine residues; e.g. Bettelheim, J Am Chem Soc., 1954, 76,2838-2839; Hiltz et al. PNAS 1955, 41, 880; Leyh, Revs Biochem and Mol.Biol., 1993, 28, 515-542.

O-sulfonation of the serine or threonine residue of the protein may bespecifically detected by any convenient analytical technique, includingspecific chemical reagents, such as antibodies specific to the modifiedresidues, chemical analysis, which may be performed directly or byderivatizing the O-sulfonated groups and detecting the resultantproduct, radiolabeling, such as with ³⁵SO₄, and mass fragmentationanalysis by mass spectrometry.

For sensitive detection, high performance hybrid triplequadrupole/linear ion trap mass spectrometers are particularly amenable.For example, the recent ABI/Sciex QTRAP4000 (Applied Biosystems, FosterCity, Calif.) detects and selectively sequences phospho-versus sulfopeptides via observation of m/z=−79 vs −80 during a HPLC run of aprotein digest. Another instrument, the Thermo Finnigan (San Jose,Calif.) LTQ FT-ICR ESI System is able to measure masses accuratelywithin 1 ppm—revealing differences in accurate mass betweenHP-(30.97376+1.007825) and S-(31.97207) nominal mass isobars. Equippedwith electron capture dissociation (ECD) that selectively cleavespeptide backbone bonds and leaves weaker, chemically labileposttranslational bonds intact, this system accelerates the sitespecific localization of phospho versus sulfo Ser/Thr and O-GlcNAc.

Detection reagents comprising O-sulfonated serine and threonine-specificmoieties include somatically recombined polypeptide receptors likespecific antibodies or T-cell antigen receptors (see, e.g Harlow andLane (1999) Using Antibodies, A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring HarborLaboratory Press), intracellular binding agents identified with assayssuch as one-, two- and three-hybrid screens, non-natural intracellularbinding agents identified in binding assays of chemical libraries, etc.In particular, protocols for generating specific monoclonal andpolyclonal antibodies are well-known, including human, humanized, andhybrid human-murine antibodies. In general, sulfopeptide-specificantibodies may be made by covalently coupling the sulfopeptide to acomplex antigen, and emulsifying the conjugate in an adjuvant, such asFreunds complete adjuvant. Laboratory animals, such as rabbits areimmunized according to conventional protocol and bled. Alternatively,protocols for in vitro immunization are also well known. The presence ofspecific antibodies may be assayed by convenient solid phaseimmunosorbant assays using immobilized sulfo-peptides, and to ensurespecificity, the corresponding negative control non-sulfonated peptide.Positive and negative affinity purification is readily effected usingimmobilized sulfo-peptides and negative control peptides.

Protocols for generating antibodies to poorly immunogenic epitopes arewell known in the art; e.g. the use of antigen-selected combinatorialphage antibody libraries (e.g. Williamson et al. 1998, J Virol 72,9413-18). In particular protocols designed to maximize yield ofsulfopeptide-specific antibodies, we conjugate sulfopeptides havinglengths between 5 and 15 residues, at >90-96% purity, immunize at least3 animals, and affinity purify the antibodies over both thenon-sulfopeptide and sulfopeptide-Sepharose. Using these criteria, wedescribe how to generate a panel of O-linked serine- andthreonine-sulfonated peptide specific monoclonal antibodies using apanel of corresponding O-linked serine- and threonine-sulfonatedpeptides conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanine (KLH); see Examples,below. Hence, also disclosed are diagnostic antibody reagents whichspecifically bind incorporated O-sulfonated serine or threonineresidues. Accordingly, the invention provides an isolated antibody whichspecifically binds an O-sulfonated protein, wherein the specific bindingis dependent on the presence of an O-sulfonated serine or threonineresidue in the protein. These specific binding agents may be modified orderivatized, for example with a label, to provide convenient reporters.

The methods encompass detecting a plurality of different and oftenpredetermined, different serine and threonine sulfonations, which may beon one or more proteins. Specific sulfonation patterns are associatedwith particular proteins, and particular conditions. Hence, serine andthreonine sulfonation, and patterns thereof, are used to characterizeproteins and physiological conditions, and vice versa. In particular,specific, predetermined changes in physiological conditions (includingbiochemical signaling) are used to infer specific changes inO-sulfonation. For example, this embodiment includes a method ofdetecting a change in O-sulfonation of a serine or threonine residue ofa protein, comprising the step of specifically detecting a physiologicalchange predetermined to be correlated with the change in O-sulfonation.

Detection methods may be practiced comparatively, wherein the detectedO-sulfonation is detected under a first physiological condition, and iscompared with a control O-sulfonation detected under a secondphysiological condition, and a difference between the detected andcontrol O-sulfonations indicates a difference between the first andsecond physiological conditions. Hence, a physiological change,preferably predetermined, is detected inferentially by detecting achange in O-sulfonation of a serine or threonine residue of a protein,also preferably predetermined, wherein the change in O-sulfonation ofthe serine or threonine residue of the protein indicates thephysiological change. Analogously, the invention provides methods fordetecting a change in O-sulfonation of a serine or threonine residue ofa protein by detecting a physiological change predetermined to becorrelated with the change in O-sulfonation.

In natural cells, numerous serine and threonine proteinsulfotransferases and sulfatases effect serine and threonineO-sulfonation and desulfonation. Additionally, O-sulfonated serine andthreonine residues mediate their functionalities by participating in awide variety of intermolecular interactions with natural, specificinteracting molecules, particularly proteins. These natural interactingmolecules, particularly proteins, and particularly sulfotransferases andsulfatases, are readily detected and isolated using O-sulfonated serine-and threonine containing peptides and proteins in established affinitystrategies, including affinity chromatography, two-hybrid screening,affinity panning, etc. These sulfotransferases and sulfatases may alsobe detected by specifically detecting a change in O-sulfonation of aserine or threonine residue of a protein, particularly a predeterminedchange predetermined to be correlated with a predeterminedsulfotransferase or sulfatase, wherein the change in O-sulfonationindicates the sulfotransferase or sulfatase activity.

Natural, specific interacting molecules, and derivatives, includingdeletion mutants thereof which retain binding specificity, providespecific probes for detecting incorporated O-sulfonated serine orthreonine residues. Hence, also disclosed are diagnostic reagentsspecific for O-sulfonated proteins, in addition to antibodies, whichspecifically bind incorporated O-sulfonated serine or threonineresidues. As with specific antibodies, these specific binding agents maybe modified or derivatized, for example with a label, to provideconvenient reporters.

In another embodiment, the invention provides methods of modifyingproteins by introducing a preferably predetermined change inO-sulfonation at a serine or threonine residue of a preferablypredetermined protein, and optionally, detecting a resultant change inO-sulfonation, for example, by specifically detecting a physiologicalchange predetermined to be correlated with the change in O-sulfonation.The modification may be made inside or outside the cell expressing theprotein. These methods include introducing or increasing O-sulfonationat the serine or threonine of the protein; eliminating or reducingO-sulfonation at the serine or threonine of the protein; andderivatizing or substituting O-sulfonation at the serine or threonine ofthe protein. Generally, the methods are practiced by directly orindirectly activating or inhibiting a preferably specificserine/threonine sulfatase or sulfotransferase. For example, eliminatingor reducing O-sulfonation at the serine or threonine of the protein maybe effected with a serine/threonine sulfotransferase inhibitor (e.g.Armstrong, et al. Curr. Opin. Drug Disc. Dev., 2000, 3, 502-515), suchas a carbohydrate sulfotransferase inhibitor (e.g. Armstrong et al.,Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 39, 1303-1306, 2000), a purine sulfotransferaseinhibitor (e.g. Verdugo, et al. J. Med. Chem., 2001, 44, 2683-2686), abisubstrate sulfotransferase inhibitor (e.g. Armstrong, et al. Org.Lett. 2001, 3, 2657-2660; Armstrong et al. J Org Chem. 2003, 68, 170-3)and combinatorial target-guided ligand assembly generatedsulfotransferase inhibitors (e.g. Kehoe et al., Bioorg Med Chem Lett.2002, 12, 329-332).

In this regard, we disclose cross-talk between severalpost-translational serine/threonine O-linked modifications, includingO-linked glycosylation (e.g. GlcNAc), O-linked sulfonation, and O-linkedphosphorylation. Since these alternative modifications can occupy thesame serines and threonines, they can be interdependently regulated. Forexample, selective inhibition of O-linked glycosylation andphosphorylation can be used to promote O-linked sulfonation at the samesite. Methods and reagents for regulating O-linked phosphatases andkinases are well known in the art, as are analogous methods forregulating O-linked carbohydrate transferases and sulfatases (e.g.Winans et al. Chem Biol. 2002, 9, 113-129; Grunwell et al. Biochem.2002, 41, 13117-13126) and O-linked phosphotransferases.

Methods for inducing beta elimination and Michael addition to O-GlcNAcsites are well-established (Vosseler et al., 2002, Curr Opn Chem Biol 6,851-7), and analogous protocols are established for modifyingphosphorylation sites (e.g. Knight et al., Nat Biotechnol. 2003 Aug. 17,Epub ahead of print). Hence, O-GlcNAc modifications on serine andthreonine, and serine-phosphate may be beta eliminated, and thenmodified by any selected Michael reagent. Selectivity of themodification may be enhanced, for example, by treating a target proteinwith a phosphatase to remove phosphorylation-sites and thenbeta-eliminating to get O-GlcNAC sites, etc. O-sulfo-serine and-threoine sites can be similarly beta-eliminated and labeled.

For example, Wells, et al. (2002, Mol Cell Proteomics 1(10), 791-804)describe beta-elimination/Michael addition method protocols for mappingsites of O-modification using affinity tags for serine and threoninepost-translational modifications, including modifications that rely onmild beta-elimination followed by Michael addition with reagents such asdithiothreitol. The reference also recites methods for using syntheticpeptides wherein biotin pentylamine replaces dithiothreitol as thenucleophile. The modified peptides can be efficiently enriched byaffinity chromatography, and the sites can be mapped using tandem massspectrometry. This same methodology can be applied to mapping sites ofserine and threonine sulfonation, and provides a strategy that usesmodification-specific antibodies and enzymes to discriminate betweensulfonation, phosphorylation and GlcNAC O-serine and O-threoninepost-translational modifications.

Proteins and peptides containing or modified to contain predeterminedO-serine or O-threonine sulfonation provide a wide variety of industrialuses, including immunogens for eliciting specific antibodies, antigensfor detecting such antibodies or for use in affinity binding pairs withsuch antibodies, labels or affinity reagents for binding sulfatases andsulfotransferases, competitive inhibitors of sulfo-protein specificinteraction etc. For example, O-serine sulfonated peptides can be shownto inhibit native sulfonation-dependent protein-protein interactionsusing methods analogous to those of Roos et al. 1997, Mol Cell Biol, 17,6472-80.

The invention also provides kits specifically tailored to practicing thesubject methods. For example, in one embodiment, the kits comprise oneor more materials for detecting or modifying a preferably predeterminedO-sulfonation of serine or threonine of a preferably predeterminedprotein and an associated instructional medium describing a subjectmethod.

The invention also provides business methods specifically tailored topracticing the subject methods. For example, in one embodiment, thebusiness methods comprise selling, contracting, or licensing a subjectmethod or composition for detecting or modifying a preferablypredetermined O-sulfonation of serine or threonine of a preferablypredetermined protein.

EXAMPLES

I. Identification and Isolation of Differentially Serine and ThreonineO-Sulfonated Proteins.

Here we report the discovery and structural characterization ofO-sulfonation of both serine and threonine residues in proteins ofdiverse class and function isolated from eukaryotes spanning the rangefrom a unicellular parasite to humans. These include a neuronalintermediate filament protein from the snail (Lymnaea stagnalis), acathepsin-C like protein from the protazoan malaria parasite (Plasmodiumfalciparum) and cytoplasmic constructs of the human orphan receptortyrosine kinase, Ror2. The presence of this new posttranslationalprotein modification was detected and characterized by on-lineHPLC-tandem electrospray mass spectrometry from proteins isolated bySDS-PAGE.

Proteins isolated from Lymnaea stagnalis nerve axoplasm were subjectedto 2D-gel screening. Differentially expressed protein spots werevisualized by a mass spectrometric compatible silver stain, excised,digested in-gel with trypsin, and analyzed by LC-CIDMS (see below).Tryptic peptide sequences were deduced from interpretation of thecollision-induced dissociation (CID) spectra measured [12]. Our Bogyomalaria protein isolation protocol has been previously described [14].

The transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains of human Ror2 were amplifiedby RT-PCR from total RNA isolated from human SH-SY5Y cells. The cDNA,encompassing residues 427-943 with an XhoI site in place of the stopcodon, was subcloned into pcDNA6-Myc/His-A (Invitrogen) to add acarboxyl-terminal Myc/His tag resulting in the plasmid termedpc6-Ror2cytoMH. To target the Ror2 construct to the inner surface of themembrane, the chicken c-Src myristylation signal was added to the aminoterminus starting at residue 432 using the unique SgrAI site within themyristylation sequence, creating the pc6-myrRor2cytoMH vector. Residues749-943 were deleted from the construct by generating a PCR fragmentwith an XhoI site after residue 748 to create the pc6-myrRor2DMH vector.

Human embryonic kidney 293T cells were cultured in Dulbecco's ModifiedEagle's Medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum and 1%penicillin/streptomycin solution (Invitrogen). Approximately 800,000cells were seeded per 60 mm dish and transiently transfected usingLipofectAMINE™ 2000 (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer'srecommended protocol. Cells were incubated for 48 hours prior toharvesting. Cells were washed twice with ice-cold phosphate-bufferedsaline and scraped into 750 mL of the same solution. Cells were pelletedby centrifugation at ˜5,000×g for 1 min and supernatant was removed byaspiration. Cells were lysed in a protein extraction buffer (PEB) andcleared by centrifugation at ˜14,000×g for 10 min at 4° C. Myc/Histagged proteins were immunoprecipitated by incubating 1 mg of eachsample with 15 mL of agarose-conjugated anti-myc antibody overnight at4° C. Agarose beads were washed twice with PEB and once in a kinasebuffer. Beads were then incubated in kinase buffer containing 100 mM ATPfor 30 min at 30° C. Reactions were stopped by the addition of 5 mL6×SDS-PAGE loading buffer.

The digests and synthetic peptides were analyzed by capillaryHPLC-ESI-QqoaTOFMS using an Ultimate HPLC system equipped with a FAMOSautosampler and a C18 PepMap 75 mm×150 mm column (Dionex-LC-Packings,San Francisco). Solvent A was 0.1% formic acid in water, and B was 0.1%formic acid in acetonitrile, at a flow rate of ˜350 nL/min.Approximately {fraction (1/10)} of each digest was injected at 5% B,then the organic content of the mobile phase was increased linearly to50% over 30 min. The column effluent was directed to a QSTAR Pulsartandem mass spectrometer (Applied Biosystems/MDS Sciex, Toronto,Calif.). During the elution of the peptides 1 sec MS acquisitions werefollowed by 5 sec CID experiments for computer-selected precursor ionsin information-dependent acquisition mode. The collision energy was setaccording to the mass value and charge state of the precursor ion. TheCID spectra were interpreted manually.

Protein class and function assessment was carried out with the aid of avariety of bioinformatics including database homology search engines[16] such as MS-Pattern and MS-BLAST.

We conducted 2D-gel analyses of neuronal axoplasm from the freshwatersnail Lymnaea stagnalis; proteins differentially expressed in nerveregeneration were subjected to in-gel tryptic digestion followed byreverse phase chromatographic separation and mass spectral analysis ofthe digest mixture. Peptide sequences were deduced by interpretation oftheir collision-induced dissociation (CID) mass spectra, and used toquery the NCBI nonredundant protein database to assign tentativehomologies in sequenced genomes. This effort revealed a number ofprotein spots with extensive homology to intermediate filament proteinsfrom other mollusks, including Helix [18] and Aplysia [19].

During the course of carrying out de novo sequencing of these particularproteins, a number of digest components were discovered during anLC-ESIMS experiment that displayed identical mass values for theirentire CID sequence ion series (viz. identical fragmentation patterns),but eluted with significantly different chromatographic retention times(deltaT_(R)=1-5 min) and possessed different molecular weights. In fact,all of the later eluting components of these identical fragmentationpattern pairs displayed an 80 Da increment in their measured molecularweight. Analysis of these LC-CIDMS spectra revealed eight such trypticpeptides in one particular digest. The chromatographic ion extractionprofiles corresponding to the mass values of the modified peptides andtheir unmodified counterparts were retrieved from the entire digestLC/MS data set.

These data indicate analogs having identical peptide sequences modifiedby a moiety of ΔM=80 Da. From the nominal mass spectrum, these modifiedanalogs are stable during electrospray ionization under ambientconditions. This behavior indicated the modification was a sulfo-moiety,rather than the isobaric phospho-modification, consistent with resultsfrom protein phosphorylation studies [20-27].

Therefore, in order to establish that the observed modifications weredue to O-sulfonation, a series of sulfo- and correspondingphospho-peptides was synthesized. For example, to compare thechromatographic retention and mass spectral fragmentation behavior, thesequence LAGLQDEIGSLR (SEQ ID NO:06) was synthesized as such togetherwith its phospho- and sulfoseryl-analogs. These synthetic peptides werestudied by LC/MS/MS under similar conditions to those employed duringanalyses of the original gel plug digests. The retention time observedfor the sulfo-modified peptide was later than its unmodified counterpartnoted in the original experiment vida supra. Interpretation of theresults from these experiments including CID spectra established thatthe sulfo-peptides do eliminate the modification upon deposition ofsufficient vibronic energy to induce dissociation of the peptidebackbone bonds. They produce low energy CID mass spectra virtuallyidentical to the corresponding unmodified molecules, but thephospho-serine analog undergoes only partial b-elimination [20-26].Finally, we have observed that sulfo-threonyl peptides behave similarlyto their sulfo-seryl analog molecules.

Plasmodium falciparum and human cell culture: In addition to thefreshwater snail, similar experiments on digests derived from proteinsisolated from both the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, and fromhuman embryonic kidney 293T cells revealed peptide analogs that arecovalently modified on both serine and threonine residues.

In the case of Plasmodium falciparum, one of the proteins was detectedusing a suicidal substrate probe for cysteine protease activity [14]. Itwas identified as a remote homolog of cathepsin C based on de novosequences obtained from tandem mass spectrometry. One of its trypticpeptides has been shown by analogous CID analysis to be7-O-sulfono-RIEVALTK (SEQ ID NO:09). This finding was confirmed bysynthesis of this peptide and its modified analogs and subsequentmeasurements that showed comparable mass spectral behavior.

In addition, during mass spectrometric characterization of the myristyljuxtamembrane construct of the human tyrosine kinase receptor Ror2, thepeptide ⁴⁶⁵LKEISLSAVR⁴⁷⁴ (SEQ ID NO:10) was observed together with twoother chromatographically distinct peaks. CID analyses of each of theseproduced fragmentation spectra demonstrative of sulfonation. Theseresults indicate that this sequence exists modified at either of the twoserine residues available for sulfonation.

The fragmentation behavior of phospho-peptides has been studiedextensively for over a decade. It is well known that β-elimination ofthe elements of phosphoric acid (−98 Da) from Ser- and Thr-modifiedpeptides occurs as a favored dissociation process [20-26]. However,quantitative elimination of phospho-functions does not occur eitherduring electrospray ionization or under low energy collisionalactivation. Thus far the only observation of significant gas-phasedephosphorylation (−80 Da) during electrospray ionization involved thehighly reactive phospho-histidine species [28]. Therefore theobservations described above are diagnostic for the presence of a sulfomoiety, rather than the corresponding phospho-analog. Extensive previousstudies have shown that Tyr-sulfated peptides usually display somesulfate loss even during MS acquisition [29].

Our identification of serine/threonine sulfonations in proteins fromvery different organisms demonstrates that this modification iswidespread, occurring ubiquitously in eukaryotes. Moreover, theexemplified modified proteins we report are targeted to three distinctcell compartments, cytoplasm, lysosome, and plasma membrane,demonstrating that serine/threonine sulfonation occurs both in the ERcontinuum and the cytoplasm. Our studies also revealed a large number ofproteins to be differentially sulfonated across differing physiologicalconditions, including injured versus non-injured axoplasms (Table 1).TABLE 1 Differentially serine and threonine sulfonated proteins,including intermediate filament proteins. 1 upregulated IEF 3-10 MW˜26kDa, pI˜4 2 upregulated IEF 4.5-5.5 MW˜26 kDa; pI − 5 3 upregulated IEF4.5-5.5 MW˜40 kDa, pI˜4.6 5 upregulated IEF 4.5-5.5 MW˜110 kDa, pI − 5.36 upregulated IEF 4.5-5.5 MW˜108 kDa, pI − 5.4 7 downregulated IEF4.5-5.5 MW˜99 kDa, pI 5.2 8 downregulated IEF 4.5-5.5 MW˜99 kDa, pI 5.39 upregulated IEF 4-7 MW˜26 kDa, pI 4.5 13 upregulated IEF 4-7˜5 highMW, pI 15 upregulated IEF 4-7 high MW, pI > 5 120 downregulated IEF 4-7contains sulfopeptides with similanty to synaptotagmin.

TABLE 2 Differentially serine and threonine sulfonated peptidesidentified from CID in proteins 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 5A KVIDELASSK [131-140](SEQ ID NO: 01) 5B NAAYAELATR [340-349] (SEQ ID NO: 02) 5C YASQLNQLR[304-312] (SEQ ID NO: 03) 5D TLVEQAIGTQSK [428-439] (SEQ ID NO: 04) 6ASSISPGVYQQLSSSGITDFK [47-66] (SEQ ID NO: 05) 6B KVIDELASSK [131-140](SEQ ID NO: 01) 6C LAGLQDEIGSLR [147-158] (SEQ ID NO: 06) 6D NAAYAELATR[340-349] (SEQ ID NO: 02) 6E YASQLNQLR [304-312] (SEQ ID NO: 03) 6FTLVEQAIGTQSK [428-439] (SEQ ID NO: 04) 7A KVIDELASSK [131-140] (SEQ IDNO: 01) 7B NAAYAELATR [340-349] (SEQ ID NO: 02) 8A KVIDELASSK [131-140](SEQ ID NO: 01) 8B LAGLQDEIGSLR [147-158] (SEQ ID NO: 06) 8C NAAYAELATR[340-349] (SEQ ID NO: 02) 8D YASQLNQLR [304-312] (SEQ ID NO: 03) 8EVGLRTLVEQAIGTQSK [424-439] (SEQ ID NO: 07) 8F TLVEQAIGTQSK [428-439](SEQ ID NO: 04) 9A SSISPGVYQQLSSSGITDFK [47-66] (SEQ ID NO: 05) 9BKVIDELASSK [131-140] (SEQ ID NO: 01) 9C LAGLQDEIGSLR [147-158] (SEQ IDNO: 06) 9D ELIVTYESQAK [159-169] (SEQ ID NO: 08) 9E NAAYAELATR [340-349](SEQ ID NO: 02) 9F YASQLNQLR [304-312] (SEQ ID NO: 03) 9GVGLRTLVEQAIGTQSK [424-439] (SEQ ID NO: 07) 9H TLVEQAIGTQSK [428-439](SEQ ID NO: 04)II. Preparation of High-Affinity Single Chain Sulfopeptide SpecificAnitibodies.

Nonimmune phage antibody libraries were constructed for the productionof high-affinity human single-chain antibodies (Sheets et al., 1998,PNAS USA 95, 6157-62). Total RNA was prepared from three differentsamples of human spleen cells and from two different samples of humanperipheral blood lymphocytes. cDNA was synthesized from total RNA primedwith the HuIgMFOR primer (Marks, et al, 1991, J. Mol. Biol. 222,581-597). V_(H) gene repertoires were amplified from the cDNA by usingVent DNA polymerase (New England Biolabs) in combination with theHuIgMFOR primer and an equimolar mixture of HuVHBACK primers. PCRproducts were agarose gel-purified and reamplified to append NcoI andNotI restriction sites by using Tth DNA polymerase (EpicentreTechnologies, Madison, Wis.) and an equimolar mixture of the HuVHBACKSfiprimers (that contain an NcoI site for cloning) and the HuCMForNotprimer. The PCR products were cut with restriction enzymes NcoI and NotIand agarose gel-purified. The resulting DNA fragments were ligated intothe plasmid pCITE3A (Novagen) cut with restriction enzymes NcoI and NotIand the ligated DNA was electroporated into the E. coli strain TG1. Alibrary of V_(H) genes containing 2.3×10⁸ members was generated from theproducts of seven ligation reactions and 15 electroporations. Theresulting library was termed pCITE-V_(H). Cloning efficiency and librarydiversity was determined by PCR screening. The pCITE3A plasmid was usedto create the V_(H) gene repertoire because of the presence of uniquesequences for PCR amplification that surround the NcoI and NotI cloningsites. These sequences allow the specific amplification of the V_(H)genes for scFv assembly.

Construction of the scFv Library. The V_(H) gene repertoire wasPCR-amplified from the pCITE-V_(H) library by using 300 ng of libraryplasmid DNA as a template, Vent DNA polymerase, the CITE3 primer, and anequimolar mixture of HuJ_(H) primers. The V_(L) genes for scFv assemblywere obtained from a previously constructed scFv phage antibody library(Marks et al., supra). The V_(L) gene repertoire, including DNA encodingthe scFv peptide linker (G₄S)₃ (Huston, et al., 1988, PNAS USA 85,5879-5883), was amplified from 300 ng of library plasmid DNA by usingVent DNA polymerase, the Gene3 primer, and an equimolar mixture ofRHuJ_(H) primers. The amplified V_(H) and V_(L) genes were agarosegel-purified and spliced together with overlap extension PCR to create ascFv gene repertoire (Clackson, et al., 1991, Nature, London, 352,624-628). To accurately join V_(H) and V_(L) gene repertoires withoverlap extension PCR, the input DNA fragments must have blunt ends.Therefore, the proofreading DNA polymerase Vent was used to generate theV_(H) and V_(L) DNA fragments for scFv assembly. For all subsequent PCRsteps of library construction Tth DNA polymerase was found to be theoptimal enzyme. The V_(H) and V_(L) gene repertoires were splicedtogether in 100-μl PCRs containing 100 ng of the V_(H) and V_(L) DNAfragments and Tth DNA polymerase. The reactions were cycled eight times(95° C. 2 min, 55° C., 1 min, and 72° C. 3 min) to join the fragments.Then the CITE3 and Gene3 primers were added and the reaction was cycled30 times (94° C. 1 min, 55° C. 1 min, and 72° C. 3 min) to amplify theassembled scFv genes. The scFv genes were cut with restriction enzymesNcoI and NotI, agarose gel-purified, and ligated into the plasmid pHEN-1(Hoogenboom, et al., 1991, Nucleic Acids Res. 19, 4133-4137) cut withNcoI and NotI. The ligated DNA was electroporated into E. coli TG1cells.

Selection of Phage Antibodies. Phagemid particles were rescued from thelibrary, as described (Schier, et al., 1996, J. Mol. Biol. 255, 28-43)except that the procedure was scaled up to 2 liters of culture media.Specific phage-displayed scFv were affinity-selected by using proteinsabsorbed to Immunotubes (Nunc). For selection of scFv to thesulfopeptides of Table 3, Immunotube selection is alternated withselection using decreasing concentrations of biotinylated sulfopeptidesand capture of bound phage using streptavidin paramagnetic beads. Phageeluted from each selection are used to infect E. coli TG1 cells. Phageparticles are rescued from the cells and used for the subsequent roundof antigen selection. The rescue-selection-plating cycle is repeated 3-4times, after which individual clones are analyzed for specific antigenbinding by ELISA.

Antibody Binding Specificity. Binding specificity of all scFv isconfirmed by ELISA using the target corresponding antigen sulfopeptideas substrate. Highly specific binding is indicated by “+++” or greater.TABLE 3 High affinity single chain sulfopeptide specific antibodies scFVPhage specific antibody Sulfopeptide SEQ ID NO binding sT8538-O-sulfono- (SEQ ID NO: 01) ++++ KVIDELASSK sV107 9-O-sulfono- (SEQ IDNO: 02) ++++ NAAYAELATR sR437 3-O-sulfono- (SEQ ID NO: 03) +++ YASQLNQLRsR032 9-O-sulfono- (SEQ ID NO: 04) +++++ TLVEQAIGTQSK sE20914-O-sulfono-SSIS (SEQ ID NO: 05) +++ PGVYQQLSSSGITDFK sG57610-O-sulfono- (SEQ ID NO: 06) ++++ LAGLQDEIGSLR sB749 13-O-sulfono- (SEQID NO: 07) +++ VGLRTLVEQAIGTQSK sY512 8-O-sulfono- (SEQ ID NO: 08) ++++ELIVTYESQAK sY268 7-O-sulfono- (SEQ ID NO: 09) +++ RIEVALTK sU9257-O-sulfono- (SEQ ID NO: 10) ++++ LKEISLSAVRIII. Preparation of High-Affinity Sulfopeptide Specific MonoclonalAnitibodies.

A library of peptide conjugates was made by coupling the panel ofO-linked serine- and threonine-sulfonated peptides of Table 3 withkeyhole limpet hemocyanine (KLH). Our coupling protocol is essentiallyas described by Nishizawa et al. (1991, J Biol Chem 266, 3074-3079).Corresponding monoclonal antibodies are prepared essentially asdescribed previously (Yano, et al. (1994) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.175, 1144-1151). In brief, KLH emulsified in complete Freund's adjuvantare injected intraperitoneally into BALB/c mice. A booster of theKLH-conjugate emulsion is given to the mice at 2-week intervals. Threedays after the final boost, the spleen cells are fused with mousemyeloma cell SP2/0-Ag 14, using polyethylene glycol 4000. The hybridomasproducing anti-sulfopeptide antibody were screened by enzyme-linkedimmunosorbent assay in microtiter plates coated with the sulfopeptides.The cells from positive wells are cloned twice to ensure monoclonality.In this manner, the hybridoma clone H32 producing AB32 antibody wasdeveloped. The hybridoma cells are grown as ascites tumors in BALB/cmice primed with pristane. Homogeneous IgG fractions are prepared byapplying ascites fluid on protein A-gel (Bio-Rad) and eluting it,according to the manufacturer's instructions. Immediately after theelution, IgG proteins are dialyzed against PBS.

IV. Mutating Sulfonated Residues of Differentially Sulfonated AxoplasmaProteins.

Differentially sulfonated axoplasma proteins 5, 6, and 8 (DSAP5, DSAP6and DSAP8, respectively) are sulfonated on serine/threonine residues138, 51 and 436, respectively (Ser-138, Ser-51 and Thr-436,respectively). This example describes cell lines expressing theseproteins with sulfonated serine/threonine residues converted to eitherGlu or Phe, and subsequent in situ immunolocalization of the mutantproteins under different axon conditions. These experiments reveal thatthe targeted sulfonation influences cellular localization of DSAP5,DSAP6 and DSAP8. Experimental protocols were adapted from Dong et al.,Biochemistry, 1994; 33(46); 13946-53.

Polymerase chain reaction-based site-directed mutagenesis is performedusing a commercial kit (QuickChange™, Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.)directly on the mammalian expression vector pDX containing DSAP cDNA. Bythis method, codons for the subject Ser-138, Ser-51 and Thr-436 areconverted to codons for either phenylalanine or glutamic acid. Themutant constructs are sequenced in their entirety to verify targetedmutations. The sequencing reaction is performed using a dye terminatorkit, and the results analyzed on an ABI model 737A automated sequencer(ABI, San Leandro, Calif.).

The mutant and wild-type DSAP constructs are cotransfected into PC12cells, which differentiate in the presence of NGF to a neuron-likephenotype. The plasmid pcDNA3 is transfected by electroporation;cotransfection with the DSAP mutants allows for selection ofmutant-expressing cells by growth under G418 or geneticin; see, e.g.Tcherpakov et al, 2002—J. Biol Chem 277: 49101-49104. Transfected cellsare first grown in alpha-minimal essential medium (a-MEM, LifeTechnologies, Inc.) without fetal bovine serum for 12-18 h and thengrown in complete a-MEM medium supplemented with 10% heat-inactivatedfetal bovine serum (Life Technologies, Inc.). For transient expression,cells are harvested 72 h after transfection. To establish stable celllines, transfected cells are grown in complete a-MEM containing 500μg/ml hygromycin (Calbiochem). The cells are assayed for DSAP expressionand localization by staining fixed, membrane-solublized cells in 1 μg/mlmonoclonal antibody (supra) and immunostaining with sheep anti-mouseIgG-fluorecein.

V. Sulfospecific Proteolysis: Chemoenzymatic Mapping Sites of ProteinSulfonation.

This example employs the selective chemical transformation ofsulfoserine and sulfothreonine residues into lysine isosteres(aminoethylcysteine and β-methylaminoethylcysteine, respectively).Aminoethylcysteine-modified peptides are then selectively cleaved with alysine-specific protease to map sites of sulfonation. A blocking stepenables single-site cleavage when desired, and adaptation of thisreaction to the solid phase facilitates sulfopeptide enrichment andmodification in one step. Our strategy relies on the well-establishedβ-elimination of sulfoserine residues to generate dehydroalanine underbasic conditions (sulfothreonine is converted toβ-methyldehydroalanine). Similar chemistry has been used to enrich andquantitate phosphoproteins for traditional trypsin digestion and MS/MSsequencing. In the next step, dehydroalanine acts as a Michael acceptorfor cysteamine, generating an aminoethylcysteine residue (forsulfothreonine, β-methylaminoethylcysteine is generated). Sinceaminoethylcysteine is isosteric with lysine, proteases that recognizelysine (e.g. trypsin, Lys-C, and lysyl endopeptidase) will cleaveproteins at this residue. We adapted this strategy from an analogousapproach for mapping protein phosphorylation (Knight et al., NatBiotechnol. 2003 Aug. 17, Epub ahead of print).

A panel of sulfoserine and two sulfothreonine peptides was chosen todemonstrate the feasibility of this approach. Extensive peptidedegradation results when standard β-elimination conditions (˜1Mhydroxide, 42-55° C., >1 hour) are applied. To achieve quantitativeβ-elimination without peptide hydrolysis, we use barium hydroxide as thebase, as well as a specific catalyst for sulfate elimination, at aconcentration of 50 mM; carry out reactions in a previously optimizedmixture of DMSO, water, and ethanol; limit the reaction length andtemperature; and perform the β-elimination and Michael addition stepsconsecutively, such that the addition of cysteamine to the basicreaction mixture in the second step reduces the pH of the reaction to˜8. Using this procedure, each peptide is cleanly converted into itsaminoethylcysteine or β-methylaminoethylcysteine analogue. Digestion ofthe aminoethylcysteine modified peptides with Lys-C or trypsin liberatespeptide fragments corresponding to selective cleavage at the site ofserine sulfonation. Hence, site-specific modification combined withproteolytic digestion allows for the unambiguous identification ofserine and threonine sulfonation sites from the exact masses of theliberated fragments.

We also selected a model protein (the human tyrosine kinase receptorRor2) that contains multiple sites of O-sulfonation to demonstrate thisstrategy for mapping sulfonation sites. Here, the protein is subject toaminoethylcysteine modification followed by co-digestion with trypsin orLys-C. One pmol digested protein is separated by nanoflow liquidchromatography on a nano-C18 column and then directly analyzed by onlineLC-MS, and MS/MS on a quadrupole orthogonal TOF spectrometer (QSTARinstrument, PESciex). Peptides are identified by mass fingerprinting(ESI-MS) corresponding to direct cleavage at all predicted sulfonationsites of the proteins, as well as by CID data.

In some cases, it is desirable to obtain cleavage exclusively at thesulfonation site (not at lysine residues), generating larger fragmentsthat might provide information about the gross topology of sulfonation.For example, the coexistence of unique sulfoisoforms (variants of asingle protein that contain distinct combinations of sulfonatedresidues) could be investigated by this type of digestion. The structureof such sulfoisoforms is challenging to probe by traditional methods,since trypsin digestion intrinsically disconnects information aboutsulfonation sites that are separated by more than 10 to 20 residues (thefrequency of a lysine or arginine residue). Alternatively, cleavageexclusively at sulfonation sites facilitates sulfonation mapping byN-terminal Edman degradation, since the first residues sequenced arethose directly C-terminal to the site of sulfonation.

The MARCKS substrate, a 25 residue peptide containing 12 lysine andmodified to contain three sulfoserine residues, was selected to explorethe feasibility of achieving exclusive cleavage at sulfonation sites. Todo this, we first convert the lysine residues to homoarginine usingo-methylisourea in order to block digestion at those sites with Lys-C.In addition to blocking proteolytic digestion, this modification hasseveral practical advantages, including (I) the enhancement of theionization of homoarginine containing peptides in MALDI due to theintroduction of the more basic guanidinium moiety, (ii) the eliminationof the near mass degeneracy of lysine and glutamine, simplifyingdatabase searching based on mass fingerprinting, (iii) the retention ofthe positive charge of the lysine modified peptides and proteins,improving solubility, and (iv) reaction conditions that can facilitatethe nearly quantitative (90-99%) guanidination of the lysine residues infull-length proteins.

The MARCKS substrate is guanidinated, the sulfoserine residues furtherconverted to aminoethylcysteine, digested with Lys-C, and finallysubjected to mass analysis by MALDI. The MALDI mass spectrum from thedigest exhibits eight prominent peaks corresponding to eight of ninepossible combinations of cleavage at the three sulfonation sites. Thesmallest fragment, corresponding to cleavage at aminoethylcysteineresidues 8 and 12 (m/z=652.4), requires longer digestion times andhigher concentrations of protease to detect. No other major products areobserved, confirming that homoarginine is not a substrate for Lys-C.Alternative chemistries are available for efficiently blocking lysineresidues, and similar results are obtained with the MARCKS substrate byacetylating the lysines residues.

We also sought to couple aminoethylcysteine modification directly to anapproach for sulfopeptide enrichment. For this purpose, we adapt theaminoethylcysteine reaction to a solid phase catch and release strategyto provide one step modification and enrichment of sulfopeptides. Thisstrategy allows sulfopeptides to be captured in the first step throughan irreversible reaction with the dehydroalanine moiety. In the nextstep, a different bond in the bead linker is labilized such thatpeptides are released while simultaneously unmasking a new chemicalhandle (aminoethylcysteine) for subsequent enzymatic interrogation. Thistype of approach facilitates automation and offers advantages oversimilar enrichment approaches that rely on selective biotinylation,which has been observed to complicate MS spectra.

To prepare an appropriate solid phase reagent, apolyethyleneglycol-polystyrene (PEG-PS) copolymer base resin (TentaGelAC) is loaded with cystamine as the benzyl carbamate. This designincorporates two important features that facilitate aminoethylcysteinemodification. First, the PEG-PS resin swells in both organic and aqueoussolvents, allowing resin capture to be performed under conditions thathave been optimized and validated for the solution phase chemistry.Secondly, the methoxybenzyl carbamate linkage is stable to the basicconditions of the β-elimination reaction, allowing for efficient peptidecapture, but highly acid labile, facilitating aminoethylcysteine peptiderelease by brief treatment with trifluoroacetic acid (TFA).

We test the ability of this reagent to capture sulfopeptides and releasethem as the aminoethylcysteine derivative. Two non-sulfonated peptides,one sulfonated threonine peptide, and one sulfoserine peptide are mixedand added to the resin as an approximately equimolar mixture. Afterincubation with the resin under β-elimination conditions for one hour,the flow-through is analyzed by HPLC. The non-sulfonated peptides aredetected intact, but the sulfoserine and sulfothreonine peaks areabsent, consistent with selective capture of the sulfopeptides in highyield. Brief treatment with TFA releases the sulfopeptides as theaminoethylcysteine modified diastereomer pair, suitable for enzymaticsulfonation mapping. This approach allows proteolytic sulfonationsite-mapping to be directly coupled to sulfopeptide enrichment fromcomplex mixtures.

In summary, we describe here an approach for mapping protein sulfonationby direct enzymatic cleavage of polypeptides at the site ofpost-translational modification. This strategy is also applicable tomapping protein phosphorylation and glycosylation in an analogousfashion. Methods for distinguishing between these variousO-modifications are well-established, such as pretreatment with anappropriate glycosidase or phosphatase.

Details of the experimental protocols used in this example are asfollows:

Sulfonation Mapping of Sulfoserine and Sulfothreonine Peptides. Modelsulfoserine peptides (ca. 100 μg) are dissolved in a 4:3:1 solution ofH₂O:DMSO:EtOH (50 μL). The β-elimination solution (50 mM Ba(OH)₂solution (23 μl) is added, and the reaction is incubated at 37° C. After1 hour, a 1M solution of cysteamine in H₂O (50 μl) is added directly tothis reaction and the reaction incubated an additional hour at roomtemperature. Reactions are analyzed by dilution into 1 ml H₂O/0.1% TFAand separation of the reaction products by reverse phase HPLC on aDynamax SD-200 solvent delivery system (Rainin, Woburn, Mass.) equippedwith a C-18 column. Individual fractions are analyzed by ESI-MS offlineusing a Micromass ZQ (Waters, Milford, Mass.) or by MALDI-MS andESI-MS/MS. (below). Beta-elimination was also performed as follows: to 2ul peptide solutions (1 pM/ul in water) we added 2 ul of 25 mM Ba(OH)₂,incubated for 1 hr at 37° C., added 2 ul of 25 mM ammonium sulfate,centrifuged it, took 1 ul of the supernatant, and measured it by MALDIin DHB without further purification.

For site-mapping, modified peptides are reconstituted in either 10 mMTris, pH 8.5 (Trypsin) or 10 mM Tris, pH 8.5, 1 mM EDTA (Lys-C) anddigested for 4 hrs at 37° C. Reactions are analyzed as above. For FRETmonitoring of the Lys-C digestion of diastereomeric aminoethylcysteinepeptides, peptide diastereomers (˜5 μg) are separated by HPLC, anddigested with 5 μg Trypsin. Reaction progress is monitored as emissionat 420 nm following excitation at 320 nm in a SpectraMax GeminiXSfluorescence plate reader (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, Calif.) asdescribed.

For guanidination reactions, the MARCKS substrate or β-casein wasdissolved in 0.5 M O-methylisourea, pH 10.5 and incubated overnight at37° C. For acetylation reactions, the MARCKS substrate was dissolved in100 mM NaHCO₃, pH 8.5 and treated with approximately 100 equivalents ofsulphosuccinimidyl acetate (Pierce, Rockford, Ill.) for 2 hours at roomtemperature to quantitatively acetylate lysine residues. Reactions weredesalted by HPLC or dialysis and subjected to aminoethylcysteinemodification and Lys-C digestion as above.

Mass spectra are obtained by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionizationtime-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry on a Voyager DESTR (AppliedBiosystems, Framingham, Mass.). All mass spectra are acquired inpositive-ionization mode with reflectron optics. The instrument isequipped with a 337 nm nitrogen laser and operated under delayedextraction conditions in reflectron mode; a delay time of 200 nsec, andgrid voltage 72.5% of full acceleration voltage (20 kV); the guide wirevoltage is at 0.002%. For linear mode experiments, the delay time is 85nsec and the grid voltage 94% of the acceleration voltage; the guidewire voltage is at 0.05%. Prior to MALDI-MS analysis, the proteolyticreaction mixtures are desalted with reversed-phase Zip Tips_(C18) (C-18resin, Millipore, Bedford, Mass.). All peptide samples are preparedusing a α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid (HCCA) (Agilent Technologies)matrix solution or 2,5-dihydroxy benzoic acid, saturated solution inwater; 1 μL of analyte (0.1-1 pmol of material) is mixed with 1 μL ofmatrix solution, and then air-dried at room temperature on a stainlesssteel target. Typically, 200 laser shots are used to record eachspectrum. The obtained mass spectra are externally calibrated with anequimolar mixture of angiotensin I, ACTH 1-17, ACTH 18-39, and ACTH7-38.

Sulfonation Mapping of Ror2. Human Ror2 protein (ca. 100 μg) is modifiedusing the same conditions as described for peptides. Followingaminoethylcysteine modification, the protein is transferred to thedigestion buffer by gel filtration (PD-10, Amersham Biosciences,Piscataway, N.J.). Sequential digests with Trypsin or Lys-C are carriedout at 37° C. for approximately 6 hours each using ca. {fraction (1/10)}enzyme by weight.

For manipulation of smaller sample sizes (50 ng to 4 μg), severalmodifications were made to the above protocol. Aminoethylcysteinemodification is carried out in 0.5 ml microcentrifuge tubes and thesample volume is adjusted to maintain a protein concentration greaterthan or equal to 0.01 μg/μl. When the reaction is complete, reagents areremoved by dialysis overnight against 1 liter of 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0using 10000 MWCO Slide-A-Lyzer Mini Dialysis units (Pierce, Rockford,Ill.). Dialyzed samples are transferred to a new 0.5 ml microcentrifugetube, and the dialysis membrane is washed three times with 10 μl of 20mM Tris, pH 8.0. Samples are concentrated to ˜5 μl by Speedvac and 5 μlof acetonitrile added as a denaturant. The sample mixture is heated to65° C. for 10 minutes and then the digestion is initiated by theaddition of 15 μl of 10 mM Tris, pH 8.0 containing trypsin at {fraction(1/10)} enzyme to substrate by weight. Reactions are allowed to proceedapproximately 6 hours at 37° C.

The proteolytic peptide mixtures (ca. 1 pmol) are analyzed by MALDI-MSor by reversed-phase HPLC-MS/MS. Briefly, peptides are separated on anUltimate nanocapillary HPLC system equipped with a PepMap™ C18nano-column (75 μm I.D.×15 cm) (LC Packings, Sunnyvale, Calif.) andCapTrap Micro guard column (0.5 μl bed volume, Michrom, Auburn, Calif.).Peptide mixtures are loaded onto the guard column and washed with theloading solvent (H₂O/0.05% formic acid, flow rate: 20 μl/min) for 5 minto remove salts and denaturing reagents, then transferred onto theC18-nanocapillary HPLC column and eluted at a flow rate of 300 nl/minusing the following gradient: 2% B (from 0-5 min), and 2-70% B (from5-55 min). Solvent A consists of 0.05% formic acid in 98% H₂O/2% ACN andsolvent B consists of 0.05% formic acid in 98% ACN/2% H₂O. The columneluant is directly coupled to QSTAR quadrupole orthogonal TOF massspectrometer (MDS Sciex, Concorde, Canada) equipped with a MicroIonSpraysource (MDS Sciex, Concorde, Canada). The needle voltage is typically2300 V in the HPLC-MS mode. Mass spectra (ESI-MS) and tandem massspectra (ESI-MS/MS) are recorded in positive-ion mode with a resolutionof 10,000 FWHM. For collision induced dissociation tandem massspectrometry (CID-MS/MS), the mass window for precursor ion selection ofthe quadrupole mass analyzer is set to ±3 mass unit. The precursor ionsare fragmented in a collision cell using nitrogen as the collision gas.The LC-MS runs on the QSTAR instrument are acquired in “InformationDependent Acquisition” mode, which allows the user to acquire MS/MSspectra based on an inclusion/exclusion mass list/charge states anddysnamic assessment of relative ion intensities. The instrument iscalibrated by infusing a renin peptide standard and using its MS/MSfragment-ions (His immonium-ion at m/z at 110.0713, and b₈-ion at m/z at1028.5312) providing a mass accuracy of ≦50 ppm.

Resin Synthesis. Tentagel AC resin (5 g) is swelled in anhydrous THF (75ml) at room temperature under an inert atmosphere. 1,1carbonyldiimidazole (2.5 g) is added and stirred for 3 hours. The resinis filtered, washed with THF, Et₂O, and dried in vacuo overnight. Beforeuse, cystamine HCl salt (5 g) is dissolved in H₂O (45 ml), the pH isadjusted to 12 with NaOH, and the cystamine is extracted with CH₂Cl₂.The organic phase is dried with MgSO₄, filtered, and the solvent removedin vacuo to give a clear oil. This oil (ca. 1 g) is added to theactivated resin (2 g) swelled in THF (25 ml). N-methylmorpholine (2 ml)is added and the resin is heated to 60° C. for 4-6 hours under an inertatmosphere. The resin is filtered, washed with THF, Et₂O, dried invacuo, and stored at −20° C. Immediately before use, the resin isdeprotected by brief treatment (15 min.) with 100 mM DTT in H₂O toexpose the cysteamine thiol. Quantitation of resin loading with Ellman'sreagent typically demonstrates 60-80% loading (0.20 to 0.25 mmol/g).

Solid-Phase Capture and Modification of Sulfoserine Peptides. Followingdeprotection, the resin is washed with 5 times with H₂O and 5 times with4:3:1H₂O:DMSO:EtOH. Peptides are dissolved in 4:3:1H₂O:DMSO:EtOH (250μl) and added to 80 mg of resin swollen in the same. 50 mM Ba(OH)₂ (225μl) is added and the reaction is incubated for one hour at 37° C. Theresin is then rinsed successively with H₂O, DMF, CH₂Cl₂ and Et₂O anddried overnight in vacuo. To release the peptides, the dried resin issuspended in 95:2.5:2.5 TFA:Me₂S:H₂O (1 ml) for 15 minutes at roomtemperature. The resin is then filtered, washed 3 times with TFA (1 ml),and the filtrate is concentrated in vacuo. The released peptides aretaken up in H₂O/0.1% TFA and analyzed by HPLC (abs. 215 nm) and MS.

Supplementary Aminoethylcysteine Modification Protocol. Protein samplesfor aminoethylcysteine modification are first desalted overnight bymicrodialysis against 2 liters water using 10000 MWCO Slide-A-Lyzer MiniDialysis units. Before use, dialysis units are soaked for one hour inwater and the inner membrane is rinsed three times with 100 μl water.Following dialysis, dialyzed samples are transferred to 0.5 ml eppendorftubes, and the dialysis membrane is washed three times with 20 μl water.The combined dialyate is then concentrated by Speed-Vac to reduce volumeto ˜5 μl, with care not to concentrate to dryness. 5 μl of a 3:1 mixtureof DMSO:EtOH is added directly to this sample. β-elimination isinitiated by the addition of 4.6 μl sat. Ba(OH)₂ and 1 μl NaOH. For mostproteins, a 2 hour incubation in a 37° C. water bath is recommended. Atthis stage, solutions of some full-length proteins may appear somewhatheterogeneous; this has no effect on the efficiency of the reaction, butgentle vortexing every 20 or 30 minutes is recommended to preventexcessive aggregation. After two hours, the sample is placed at roomtemperature. While the sample is cooling (5-10 minutes), a 1 M solutionof cysteamine HCl is freshly prepared, and 10 μl of this solution isadded directly to the β-elimination reaction. This reaction is allowedto proceed 3 to 6 hours at room temperature.

When the Michael addition reaction is complete, the protein solution istransferred to a rinsed mini-dialysis unit and dialyzed overnightagainst 2 liters of 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0. The eppendorf tube from theb-elimination reaction is rinsed three times with 15 ml of 20 mM Tris,pH 8.0 to ensure complete protein transfer. Following dialysis, theprotein is transferred to a new 0.5 ml eppendorf tube, with carefulrinsing of the dialysis membrane. This protein solution is thenconcentrated by Speed-Vac. This concentrated protein sample is thenready for digestion with appropriate proteases (e.g., trypsin or Lys-C)and analysis by LC-MS/MS or MALDI-MS. In general, we find that Lys-Ccleaves at modified sites more efficiently than trypsin, and that it isadvisable to use slightly higher concentrations of proteases than wouldbe optimal for an ordinary trypsin digestion, although optimal digestionconditions vary significantly between samples.

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The foregoing descriptions of particular embodiments and examples areoffered by way of illustration and not by way of limitation. Allpublications and patent applications cited in this specification and allreferences cited therein are herein incorporated by reference as if eachindividual publication or patent application or reference werespecifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail byway of illustration and example for purposes of clarity ofunderstanding, it will be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill inthe art in light of the teachings of this invention that certain changesand modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spiritor scope of the appended claims.

1. A method of detecting a post-translational modification of apredetermined protein expressed by a cell, comprising the step of:specifically detecting an O-sulfonation of a serine or threonine residueof the protein.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the detectedO-sulfonation is detected under a first physiological condition, and iscompared with a control O-sulfonation detected under a secondphysiological condition.
 3. A method of modifying a predeterminedprotein expressed by a cell, comprising the step of introducing apredetermined change in O-sulfonation at a serine or threonine residueof the protein.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the introducing stepcomprises introducing or increasing O-sulfonation at the serine orthreonine of the protein.
 5. The method of claim 3, wherein theintroducing step comprises eliminating or reducing O-sulfonation at theserine or threonine of the protein.
 6. The method of claim 3, whereinthe introducing step comprises eliminating or reducing O-sulfonation atthe serine or threonine of the protein using a serine/threoninesulfotransferase inhibitor selected from the group consisting of acarbohydrate sulfotransferase inhibitor, a purine sulfotransferaseinhibitor, and a bisubstrate sulfotransferase inhibitor, [LIST].
 7. Themethod of claim 3, wherein the introducing step comprises derivatizingor substituting O-sulfonation at the serine or threonine of the protein.8. The method of claim 3, further comprising the step of detecting aresultant change in O-sulfonation.
 9. The method of claim 3, furthercomprising the step of detecting a resultant change in O-sulfonation byspecifically detecting a physiological change predetermined to becorrelated with the change in O-sulfonation.
 10. An isolated antibodywhich specifically binds an O-sulfonated protein expressed by a cell,wherein the specific binding is dependent on the presence of anO-sulfonated serine or threonine residue in the protein.